Greece and Rome

ὕβρις, εως, ἡ (s. prec. and next entry; Hom.+)

① the quality or state of being insolent, insolence, arrogance, the act. sense (Appian, Basil. 5 §2 καθʼ ὕβριν=out of arrogance; Pr 11:2; 29:23; Is 9:8; Philo, Spec. Leg. 3, 186; Jos., Ant. 6, 61; Tat., Ath.) ὕβρ. ὑπερηφάνων 1 Cl 59:3 (ὕβρ. w. ὑπερηφανία: Ael. Aristid. 28, 101 K.=49 p. 524 D.; Paroem. Gr.: Zenob. [II A.D.] 5, 44. Also ὑβριστικῶς κ. ὑπερηφάνως Diod S 16, 41, 2).

② the experience of insolence, shame, insult, mistreatment, the pass. sense (PEleph 1, 8 [311 B.C.] ἐφʼ ὕβρει=for insult, for outrage; PMagd 24 verso; PsSol 2:26f; JosAs 28:14 Philonenko [Bat. p. 84, 7]; SibOr 3, 529; Philo, In Flacc. 58; Just.; Celsus 4, 46) ὕβριν ὑποφέρειν Hm 8:10. ὕβριν ποιεῖν τινι do harm to someone Hs 9, 11, 8 (JosAs 23:13). Pl. mistreatment (Polyb. 6, 8, 5; 10, 37, 8; 11, 5, 7; Sb 5235, 12 [I A.D.] ὕβρεις καὶ πληγάς; PLond II, 358, 8 p. 172 [II A.D.]; Sir 10:8; SibOr 4, 164.—‘Chastisements’ Theoph. Ant. 2, 25 [p. 162, 7]) 2 Cor 12:10.

③ damage caused by use of force, fig. hardship, disaster, damage caused by the elements (Pind., P. 1, 72 [140]; Anth. Pal. 7, 291, 4 δείσασα θαλάττης ὕβριν; Jos., Ant. 3, 133 τὴν ἀπὸ τῶν ὄμβρων ὕβριν) w. ζημία Ac 27:10 (μετὰ ὕβ. as SIG 780, 18; 30; 3 Macc 3:25; JosAs 7:5; Jos., Ant. 1, 60), 21. Of Judas’ illness εἰς ὕβριν to (his) shame Papias (3:2).—DMacDowell, Hybris in Athens: Greece and Rome 2 ser. 23, ’76, 14–31; NFisher, Hybris and Dishonour, pt. I: ibid., 177–93; pt. II, ibid., ’79, 32–47; PMarshall, Hybrists not Gnostics in Corinth: SBLSP 23, ’84, 275–87; DCohen, Sexuality, Violence, and the Athenian Law of Hybris: Greece and Rome 38, ’91, 171–88; JHooker, The Original Meaning of ὕβρις: Archiv f. Begriffsgeschichte 19, ’75, 125–37; s. lit. cited by CBrown, Mnemosyne 49, ’96, 7 n. 13.—Schmidt, Syn. IV 273–80. DELG. M-M. TW. Sv.

ἐργάζομαι impf. ἠργαζόμην (εἰργ-edd., Ac 18:3); fut. 2 sg. ἐργᾷ; 3 sg.; ἐργᾶται and 3 pl. ἐργῶνται (all LXX); 1 aor. εἰργασάμην ( 2J 8; other edd. ἠρ.); pf. 3 sg. εἴργασται LXX; ptc. εἰργασμένος (for augment s. Mayser 332; Meisterhans³-Schw. 171; B-D-F §67, 3; Moulton, ClR 15, 1901, p. 35f; Mlt-H. 189f); pass. fut. 3 sg. ἐργασθήσεται Ezk 36:34; En 10:18 (s. ἔργον and next entry; Hom.+).

① to engage in activity that involves effort, work, intr. work, be active (Hes., Hdt. et al.) D 12:3. ταῖς χερσίν work w. one’s hands 1 Cor 4:12 (ἐ. ἰδίαις χερσίν as Biogr. p. 253; on depreciation of manual labor cp. Jos., Ant. 17, 333); 1 Th 4:11 (s. ἴδιος 3a). Also διὰ τῶν χειρῶν B 19:10. νυκτὸς καὶ ἡμέρας work night and day 1 Th 2:9; 2 Th 3:8. ἐν τῷ ἀμπελῶνι in the vineyard Mt 21:28. Abs. Lk 13:14; J 9:4b; Ac 18:3; 1 Cor 9:6; 2 Th 3:10, 12. τῷ ἐργαζομένῳ to the worker Ro 4:4; cp. vs. 5 (ἐργαζόμενοι καλοί, OdeSol 11:20) and Lk 6:5 D (Unknown Sayings 49–54). Of God and Christ: work, be busy J 5:17 (cp. Maximus Tyr. 15, 6ef: Heracles must work without ceasing, since Zeus his father does the same).—Of financial enterprise: a sum of money (five talents) ἐ. ἐν αὐτοῖς do business/ trade with them (Demosth. 36, 44 ἐ. ἐν ἐμπορίῳ καὶ χρήμασιν) Mt 25:16.—MBalme, Attitudes to Work and Leisure in Ancient Greece: Greece and Rome 2d ser. 31, ’84, 140–52.

② to do or accomplish someth. through work, trans.

ⓐ do, accomplish, carry out w. acc. (Ael. Aristid. 42, 13 K.=6 p. 69 D.: ταῦτα ἐργαζομένου σου τοῦ κυρίου [Asclepius]) ἔργον (X., An. 6, 3, 17 κάλλιστον ἔργον ἐ.; Pla., Polit. 1, 346d; Appian, Celt. 18 §2, Bell. Civ. 2, 58 §238 al.; Arrian, Anab. 7, 17, 3; PPetr II, 9 [2], 4 [III B.C.]; Sir 51:30; TestSol D 4:8 τὸ ἔ. ὑμῶν; Just. D. 88, 8 τεκτονικὰ ἔργα) Ac 13:41 (Hab 1:5); 1 Cl 33:8. τὰ ἔργα τοῦ θεοῦ do the work of God (cp. Num 8:11) J 6:28; 9:4. τὸ ἔργον κυρίου the Lord’s work 1 Cor 16:10. ἐ. τι εἴς τινα do someth. to someone (Ps.-Demosth. 53, 18): ἔργον καλὸν εἴς τινα do a fine thing to someone Mt 26:10; cp. B 21:2; 3J 5. Also ἔν τινι Mk 14:6. In a different sense ἔργα ἐν θεῷ εἰργασμένα deeds performed in God J 3:21. ἐ. τὸ ἀγαθόν do what is good (cp. Dio Chrys. 16 [33], 15; GrBar 11:9; and Jos., Ant. 6, 208 ἀγαθά) Ro 2:10; Eph 4:28; Hm 2:4. Opp. ἐ. πονηρόν (Lucian, Catapl. 24) m 10, 2, 3. ἐ. ἀγαθὸν πρὸς πάντας do good to all people Gal 6:10. κακὸν ἐ. (Dio Chrys. 13 [7], 33; Palaeph. 1 and 3; Just., D. 95, 1 κακά; Ath. 11, 2 ἀεί τι ἐ. … κακόν): κακὸν τῷ πλησίον ἐ. do wrong to one’s neighbor Ro 13:10 (cp. Pr 3:30; EpArist 273). Gener. someth. Col 3:23; 2J 8; μηδὲν ἐ. do no work 2 Th 3:11. οὐδὲν τῇ δικαιοσύνῃ do nothing for righteousness Hs 5, 1, 4 (Ps.-Aristot., Mirabilia 142 οὐδὲν ἐργ.=accomplish nothing).—Also used with attributes, etc. (in Isocr. w. ἀρετήν, σωφροσύνην; Philo, Gig. 26 τελειότητα) δικαιοσύνην (Ps 14:2) do what is right Ac 10:35; Hb 11:33; Hv 2, 2, 7; m 5, 1, 1; Hs 9, 13, 7. ἐ. δικαιοσύνην θεοῦ do what is right in God’s sight Js 1:20 (but s. c below; v.l. κατεργάζεσθαι, q.v.). τὴν ἀνομίαν (Ps 5:6; 6:9 al.) Mt 7:23. ἁμαρτίαν commit sin Js 2:9 (Jos., Ant. 6, 124 τὸ ἁμάρτημα). Of the effect: τί ἐργάζῃ; what work are you doing? J 6:30 (cp. Philo, Leg. All. 3, 83; Tat. 25, 1 τί μέγα … ἐ. φιλόσοφοι;).

ⓑ practice, perform, officiate at (τέχνην, etc., X., Pla. et al.) τὰ ἱερά the temple rites 1 Cor 9:13 (cp. Num 8:11).

ⓒ bring about, give rise to as proceeds from work (s. next entry 4; Soph., Ant. 326; Epict., Fgm. Stob. 14 πενία λύπην ἐργάζεται; Just., A I, 45, 6 ὅπερ … κόλασιν διὰ πυρὸς αἰωνίαν ἐργάζεται). μετάνοιαν 2 Cor 7:10. ἐ. δικαιοσύνην θεοῦ bring about the righteousness that will stand before God (but s. a above) Js 1:20. θάνατον ἑαυτοῖς ἐ. bring death on themselves Hs 8, 8, 5 (Just., D. 124, 4).

ⓓ work (on) (τὴν γῆν Gen 2:5; En 10:18; ApcMos 24) τὴν θάλασσαν work on the sea for a livelihood (Aristot., Probl. 38, 2, 966b, 26; Dionys. Hal. 3, 46; Appian, Liby. 2 §5; 84 §397; Lucian, Electr. 5) Rv 18:17 (s. CLindhagen, ΕΡΓΑΖΕΣΘΑΙ, ’50: Uppsala Univ. Årsskrift ’50, 5, 5–26).

ⓔ work for/earn food (Hes., Op. 43 βίον ἐ.; Hdt. 1, 24 χρήματα; cp. Pla., Hipp. Mai. 282d, Laches 183a; X., Mem. 2, 8, 2; Theod. Pr 21:6. Also βρῶμα: Palaeph. p. 28, 10) ἐ. τὴν βρῶσιν J 6:27: in this context βρῶσις appears to be the free gift of the Human One (Son of Man).—As in the similar case of the Samaritan woman (cp. J 6:35 w. 4:14) hearers are simply prepared for the statement that they are to accept what is freely given. But ἐργάζεσθαι can also mean, when used w. food, prepare for use, digest, assimilate sc. τὴν τροφήν (Aristot., De Vita et Morte 4; Maximus Tyr. 15, 5a [ἐργ. τὴν τροφήν of the activity of the jaws]; more often ἐργασία τ. τροφῆς). The compound κατεργάζεσθαι is more common in this sense, but it is avoided in this passage for the sake of wordplay w. ἐργάζεσθαι in vs. 28.—DELG s.v. ἔργον. M-M. EDNT. TW.

κύων, κυνός, ὁ (Hom. et al. in lit. and transf. sense, and either masculine or feminine)

① dog Lk 16:21 (licking sores: SIG 1169, 37; IG IV, 951; cp. Aelian, NA 8, 9) 2 Pt 2:22 (Pr 26:11; cp. Paroem. Gr.: Gregor. Cypr. 2, 83 κ. ἐπὶ τὸν ἴδιον ἔμετον); PtK 2 p. 14, 20. As an unclean animal w. χοῖρος Ox 840, 33 (cp. Ps.-Aristot., Mirabilia 116 κύνες and ὕες as unclean animals that eat human filth; s. KRengstorf, Rabb. Texte, ser. 1, vol. III ’33ff, p. 35f; but s. SLonsdale, Attitudes towards Animals in Ancient Greece: Greece and Rome 26, ’79, 146–59 [lit. p. 158, n. 1]); this pass. is taken fig. of unclean persons (s. 2 below) by JJeremias, ConNeot XI, ’47, 104f. μὴ δῶτε τὸ ἅγιον τ. κυσίν Mt 7:6 (s. χοῖρος) must be a proverbial saying, and in its present context appears to be a warning against untimely or imprudent approaches to those in need of counsel or correction. Differently D 9:5 in the citation of this pass., s. 2.

② a cultically impure person, unqualified, the mng. assigned in D 9:5 to κ. Mt 7:6, a pass. that readily adapts itself to a variety of applications. Thus as early as the Didache the ‘dogs’ and ‘swine’ of the pass. were taken as specific referents to those who were unbaptized and therefore impure.

③ an infamous pers., dog, fig. extension of 1: in invective (as early as Homer; s. also Dio Chrys. 8 [9], 3; BGU 814, 19; Ps 21:17; Just., D. 104, 1) Phil 3:2 (Straub 58); Rv 22:15. Dissidents are compared to mad dogs IEph 7:1 (s. Philo, Omn. Prob. Lib. 90. Μαρκίων ἢ τῶν ἐκείνου κυνῶν τις Hippol., Ref. 7, 30, 1).—Billerbeck I 477, 722f; III 621f, 773; Kl.-Pauly II 1245ff.—B. 179. DELG (read κύων). M-M. EDNT. TW.

πόλις, εως, ἡ (Hom.+. Gener. a population center in contrast to a relatively uninhabited or rural area. In the Gr-Rom. world the term gener. implied strong political associations, esp. in the sense ‘city-state’).

① population center of varying size, city, town, lit. Mt 5:14; Lk 10:8, 10. Pl. Mt 11:20; Lk 5:12; 19:17, 19. ἡ πόλις the city or the town designated in the context Mt 8:33; 21:17f; 26:18; Mk 11:19; 14:13, 16; Lk 4:29a; 7:12ab; J 4:8, 28, 30; Ac 8:9; 14:4; Rv 11:13; B 16:5; AcPl Ha 4, 18; 5, 17. Likew. αἱ πόλεις Ac 16:4. ἡ πόλις the city can also be the capital city, the main city (Mayser II/2 p. 28; Jos., C. Ap. 2, 125) Ac 8:5; cp. Mk 5:14 (s. vs. 1); Lk 8:27 (s. vs. 26). ἡ πόλις ἐκείνη Mt 10:14f; Lk 9:5; 10:12; 18:3; J 4:39; Ac 8:8; Hs 9, 12, 5b. ἡ πόλ. αὕτη Mt 10:23a; Ac 4:27; 18:10; 22:3; Hs 1:3. ἔν τινι πόλει in a certain city Lk 18:2; cp. Hs 9, 12, 5a. εἰς τήνδε τὴν πόλιν Js 4:13 (s. ὅδε 2). πᾶσα πόλις Lk 10:1. αἱ πόλεις πᾶσαι Mt 9:35; Ac 8:40; cp. Mk 6:33.—πόλις (πόλεις) beside κώμη (κῶμαι) Mt 9:35; 10:11; Lk 8:1; 13:22. W. κῶμαι and ἀγροί Mk 6:56. ἡ πόλις καὶ οἱ ἀγροί 5:14; Lk 8:34. W. τόπος 10:1. In contrast to the open plain or the desert, where no cities are found Mt 14:13; Mk 1:45; 2 Cor 11:26; to the interior of a building Ac 12:10.—Used w. the gen.: to denote the region in which it is located πόλ. τῆς Γαλιλαίας Lk 1:26; 4:31. πόλ. Ἰούδα (Ἰούδας 1c) 1:39. Cp. J 4:5; Ac 14:6; 21:39; to denote the inhabitants (Diod S 34 and 35 Fgm. 23 ἡ τῶν Γαλατῶν πόλις; Jos., Ant. 1, 200) ἡ πόλ. Δαμασκηνῶν 2 Cor 11:32. π. Σαμαριτῶν Mt 10:5; Lk 9:52 v.l. Cp. 23:51; Ac 19:35; EpilMosq 4; AcPl Ox 6, 20 (=Aa I 242, 1). αἱ πόλεις τοῦ Ἰσραήλ the cities in which the people of Israel live Mt 10:23b (Ἰσραήλ 2).—Rv 16:19b. ἡ πόλ. αὐτῶν Mt 22:7; Lk 4:29b.—2:39. Also w. the gen. sg. πόλ. Δαυίδ city of David 2:4b, 11; ἡ ἑαυτοῦ πολ. the person’s own town (=ancestral locale; but 2:39 Nazareth = their place of residence) 2:3.—J 1:44. Also ἡ ἰδία πόλ. (s. ἴδιος 1b) Mt 9:1; Lk 2:3 v.l.; Hs 1:2b (in imagery, s. 2 below). Pl. 1 Cl 55:1. The πόλεις ἴδιαι of the Christians Dg 5:2 are those inhabited by them alone; they are contrasted w. πόλεις Ἑλληνίδες Greek cities (cp. SIG 761, 15 [48/47 B.C.]; 909, 2), π. βάρβαροι Dg 5:4.—π. μεγάλαι great cities 1 Cl 6:4; AcPl Ha 2, 25f. In Rv ἡ πόλ. ἡ. μεγάλη (Tat. 19, 1; 29, 1 Rome) is almost always ‘Babylon’ (s. Βαβυλών) 16:19a; 17:18; 18:16, 18f, 21; ἡ πόλις ἡ μεγάλη, Βαβυλὼν ἡ πόλις ἡ ἰσχυρά 18:10. On the other hand ἡ πόλ. ἡ μεγάλη 11:8 is clearly Jerusalem (as SibOr 5, 154; 226). Elsewh. Jerus. is called ἡ πόλ. ἡ ἠγαπημένη 20:9 (cp. ApcSed 8:3 πρῶτον ἠγάπησας … εἰς τὰς πόλεις τὴν Ἰερουσαλήμ); ἡ ἁγία πόλ. Mt 4:5; 27:53; Rv 11:2 (ἅγιος 1aα); πόλ. τοῦ μεγάλου βασιλέως the city of the Great King Mt 5:35 (βασιλεύς 2b). εἰς πόλιν ἄρχουσαν ὀπύσεως in the city that sponsors fornication ApcPt Rainer 4, 1 (Ja. p. 278; s. also ὄπυσις).—The name of the town or city that goes w. πόλις stands either in the epexegetic gen. (Aeschyl. et al.; also Demetr.: 722 Fgm. 1, 8 Jac. πόλιν Σικίμων) πόλεις Σοδόμων καὶ Γομόρρας 2 Pt 2:6 or in the case in which πόλις itself is found, ἐν πόλει Ἰόππῃ Ac 11:5; πόλις Λασαία 27:8. From the construction πόλεως Θυατίρων Ac 16:14 no determination of the nom. of Θυ-can be made: either πόλις Θυατίρων or πόλις Θυάτιρα (B-D-R §167, 3). W. indecl. place names Lk 2:4a, 39. πόλις λεγομένη or καλουμένη w. the name following Mt 2:23; Lk 7:11; 9:10. Cp. J 11:54.—ἀπὸ πόλεως εἰς πόλιν (Aesop, Fab. 228 P./421 H./354 Ch./H-H. 256 μεταβαίνουσιν ἀπὸ πόλεως εἰς πόλιν) Mt 23:34. κατὰ τὴν πόλιν anywhere in the city Ac 24:12. Cp. Lk 8:39 (κατά B1a). κατὰ πόλιν from city to city IRo 9:3; pl. Lk 13:22; in every city (Appian, Bell. Civ. 1. 39 §177) Ac 15:21, 36 (κατὰ πόλιν πᾶσαν); 20:23; Tit 1:5 (Diod S 5, 78, 2 Crete has, indeed, ‘not a few’ cities). Cp. Lk 8:1, 4 (κατά B1d). αἱ ἔξω πόλεις Ac 26:11 (ἔξω 1aβ). αἱ πέριξ πόλεις 5:16 (s. πέριξ). αἱ περὶ αὐτὰς (i.e. Sodom and Gomorrah) πόλεις Jd 7. πρὸ τ. πόλεως (Jos., Bell. 1, 234, Ant. 10, 44) Ac 14:13.

② the (heavenly) city = the New Jerusalem (Bousset, Rel.³ 283ff; RKnopf, GHeinrici Festschr. 14, 213–19; McQueen, Exp. 9th ser., 2, 1924, 220–26; FDijkema, NThT 15, 1926, 25–43) Hb 11:10, 16 (cp. TestJob 18:8; TestAbr A 2 p. 78, 30 [Stone p. 4] ἀπὸ τῆς μεγάλης πόλεως ἔρχομαι [of Michael]). πόλ. θεοῦ ζῶντος 12:22 (SibOr 5, 250 θεοῦ π. of Jerus.). ἡ μέλλουσα (opp. οὐ … μένουσα πόλις) 13:14. Esp. in Rv: ἡ πόλις ἡ ἁγία Ἰερουσαλὴμ (καινή) 21:2, 10 (CBouma, GereformTT 36, ’36, 91–98). Further vss. 14–16, 18f, 21, 23; 22:14, 19; also 3:12. (Cp. Lucian’s description of the wonder-city in Ver. Hist. 2, 11f: ἡ πόλις πᾶσα χρυσῆ, τὸ τεῖχος σμαράγδινον. πύλαι … ἑπτά, πᾶσαι μονόξυλοι κινναμώμιναι … γῆ ἐλεφαντίνη … ναοὶ βηρύλλου λίθου … βωμοὶ … ἀμεθύστινοι … ποταμὸς μύρου τοῦ καλλίστου … οἶκοι ὑάλινοι … οὐδὲ νὺξ οὐδὲ ἡμέρα.) On the topic s. JMorwood, Aeneas, Augustus, and the Theme of the City: Greece and Rome new ser. 38, ’91, 212–23.—Hs 1:1, 2.

③ inhabitants of a city, city abstr. for concrete (X., Cyr. 1, 4, 25; Herodian 3, 2, 7; Jos., Ant. 5, 357) Lk 4:43; Ac 14:21; 16:20 (cp. Jos., Bell. 7, 41; DWhitehead, MusHelv 53/1, ’96, 1–11 [on identification of citizens and place cp. Thu. 2, 2, 1; X., Hell. 2, 2, 9]). πᾶσα ἡ πόλις (Diod S 18, 70, 2; Appian, Numid. 1) Mt 8:34; 21:10 (w. λέγουσα foll.); Ac 13:44; ὅλη ἡ π. (Diod S 10, 3, 2) Mk 1:33; Ac 21:30. πόλις μερισθεῖσα καθʼ ἑαυτῆς Mt 12:25. ἐθριαμβεύετο ὑπὸ τῆς πόλεως (Paul) was derided by the city AcPl Ha 4, 13 (s. θριαμβεύω 5). HConn, Lucan Perspective and the City: Missiology 13, ’85, 409–28 (Lk-Ac contains half of the 160+ occurrences of π. in the NT).—B. 1308. Schmidt, Syn. II 495–507. DELG. M-M. EDNT. TW.

ζῷον, ου, τό (also ζῶον; for sp. B-D-F §26, Mlt-H. §36, L-S-J-M s.v.; cp. Rob. 194f; Pre-Socr., Hdt.+).

① a living creature, wild or domesticated, but not including plants, animal in our lit. exclusive of human beings (Diod S 3, 31, 2; 5, 45, 1; Epict. 3, 1, 1; Jos., Ant. 3, 228; apolog. [Tat. 15, 2 Περὶ ζώων] as book title) Hb 13:11; 1 Cl 20:4, 10; 33:3; B 10:7f; Ox 840, 4 (s. JJeremias, ConNeot 11, ’48, 98); Hm 12, 4, 1 v.l.; GJs 3:2 (tame animals, s. deStrycker ad loc. [opp. τὸ … λογικὸν ζῶον, ὁ ἄνθρωπος Just., D. 93, 3]). ἄλογα ζῷα (s. ἄλογος 1) 2 Pt 2:12; Jd 10.

② a creature that transcends normal descriptive categories and is freq. composite, living thing/being (cp. Diod S 4, 47, 3 of a dragon; OGI 90, 31 τῷ τε Ἄπει καὶ τῷ Μνεύει … καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ἱεροῖς ζῴοις τοῖς ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ; PTebt 5, 78 [118 B.C.]; 57, 12; POxy 1188, 4; Herm. Wr. 11, 7; Ath. 18, 3; God no σύνθετον ζῶον ‘composite animal’ Just., D. 114, 3; Ath. 6, 3; of an embryo Ath. 35, 2) of the miraculous bird, the phoenix 1 Cl 25:3. Of the four peculiar beings at God’s throne, whose description Rv 4:6–9 reminds one of the ζῷα in Ezk 1:5ff, the cherubim. S. also Rv 5:6, 8, 11, 14; 6:1, 3, 5–7; 7:11; 14:3; 15:7; 19:4.

③ One isolated pass. in our lit. has ζῶα in the sense living creatures, including both humans and animals (Cornutus 16 p. 20, 20; Ael. Aristid. 45, 32 K.; Jos., Ant. 1, 41; Just., D. 4, 2; 107, 2) 1 Cl 9:4.—SLongsdale, Attitudes towards Animals in Ancient Greece: Greece and Rome, 2d ser. 26, ’79, 146–59 (lit.).—B. 137. DELG s.v. ζώω. M-M. TW.

ψυχή, ῆς, ἡ (Hom.+; ‘life, soul’) It is oft. impossible to draw hard and fast lines in the use of this multivalent word. Gen. it is used in ref. to dematerialized existence or being, but, apart fr. other data, the fact that ψ. is also a dog’s name suggests that the primary component is not metaphysical, s. SLonsdale, Greece and Rome 26, ’79, 146–59. Without ψ. a being, whether human or animal, consists merely of flesh and bones and without functioning capability. Speculations and views respecting the fortunes of ψ. and its relation to the body find varied expression in our lit.

① life on earth in its animating aspect making bodily function possible

ⓐ (breath of) life, life-principle, soul, of animals (Galen, Protr. 13 p. 42, 27 John; Gen 9:4) Rv 8:9. As a rule of human beings (Gen 35:18; 3 Km 17:21; ApcEsdr 5:13 λαμβάνει τὴν ψυχὴν the fetus in its sixth month) Ac 20:10. When it leaves the body death occurs Lk 12:20 (cp. Jos., C. Ap. 1, 164; on the theme cp. Pind., I. 1, 67f). The soul is delivered up to death (the pass. in ref. to divine initiative), i.e. into a condition in which it no longer makes contact with the physical structure it inhabited 1 Cl 16:13 (Is 53:12), whereupon it leaves the realm of earth and lives on in Hades (Lucian, Dial. Mort. 17, 2; Jos., Ant. 6, 332) Ac 2:27 (Ps 15:10), 31 v.l. or some other place outside the earth Rv 6:9; 20:4; ApcPt 10:25 (GrBar 10:5 τὸ πεδίον … οὗπερ ἔρχονται αἱ ψυχαὶ τῶν δικαίων; ApcEsdr 7:3 ἀπέρχεται εἰς τὸν οὐρανόν; Himerius, Or. 8 [23]: his consecrated son [παῖς ἱερός 7] Rufinus, when he dies, leaves his σῶμα to the death-daemon, while his ψυχή goes into οὐρανός, to live w. the gods 23).—B 5:13 (s. Ps 21:21).

ⓑ the condition of being alive, earthly life, life itself (Diod S 1, 25, 6 δοῦναι τὴν ψυχήν=give life back [to the dead Horus]; 3, 26, 2; 14, 65, 2; 16, 78, 5; Jos., Ant. 18, 358 σωτηρία τῆς ψυχῆς; 14, 67; s. Reader, Polemo 354 [reff.]) ζητεῖν τὴν ψυχήν τινος Mt 2:20 (cp. Ex 4:19); Ro 11:3 (3 Km 19:10, 14). δοῦναι τὴν ψυχὴν ἑαυτοῦ (cp. Eur., Phoen. 998) Mt 20:28; Mk 10:45; John says for this τιθέναι τὴν ψυχὴν J 10:11, 15, 17, (18); 13:37f; 15:13; 1J 3:16ab; παραδιδόναι Ac 15:26; Hs 9, 28, 2. παραβολεύεσθαι τῇ ψυχῇ Phil 2:30 (s. παραβολεύομαι). To love one’s own life (JosAs 13:1 ἐγὼ ἀγαπῶ αὐτὸν ὑπὲρ τὴν ψυχήν μου) Rv 12:11; cp. B 1:4; 4:6; 19:5; D 2:7. Life as prolonged by nourishment Mt 6:25ab; Lk 12:22f. Cp. 14:26; Ac 20:24; 27:10, 22; 28:19 v.l.; Ro 16:4. S. also 2e below.

ⓒ by metonymy, that which possesses life/soul (cp. 3 below) ψυχὴ ζῶσα (s. Gen 1:24) a living creature Rv 16:3 v.l. for ζωῆς. Cp. ἐγένετο Ἀδὰμ εἰς ψυχὴν ζῶσαν 1 Cor 15:45 (Gen 2:7. S. πνεῦμα 5f). ψυχὴ ζωῆς Rv 16:3.

② seat and center of the inner human life in its many and varied aspects, soul

ⓐ of the desire for luxurious living (cp. the OT expressions Ps 106:9 [=ParJer 9:20, but in sense of d below]; Pr 25:25; Is 29:8; 32:6; Bar 2:18b; PsSol 4:17. But also X., Cyr. 8, 7, 4; ins in CB I/2, 477 no. 343, 5 the soul as the seat of enjoyment of the good things in life) of the rich man ἐρῶ τῇ ψυχῇ μου• ψυχή, ἀναπαύου, φάγε, πίε, εὐφραίνου Lk 12:19 (cp. PsSol 5:12; Aelian, VH 1, 32 εὐφραίνειν τὴν ψυχήν; X., Cyr. 6, 2, 28 ἡ ψυχὴ ἀναπαύσεται.—The address to the ψυχή as PsSol 3, 1; Cyranides p. 41, 27). Cp. Rv 18:14.

ⓑ of evil desires (PsSol 4:13; Tat. 23, 2) 2 Cl 16:2; 17:7.

ⓒ of feelings and emotions (Anacr., Fgm. 4 Diehl² [15 Page]; Diod S 8, 32, 3; JosAs 6:1; SibOr 3, 558; Just., D. 2, 4; Mel., P. 18, 124 al.) περίλυπός ἐστιν ἡ ψυχή μου (cp. Ps 41:6, 12; 42:5) Mt 26:38; Mk 14:34. ἡ ψυχή μου τετάρακται J 12:27; cp. Ac 2:43 (s. 3 below).—Lk 1:46; 2:35; J 10:24; Ac 14:2, 22; 15:24; Ro 2:9; 1 Th 2:8 (τὰς ἑαυτῶν ψυχάς our hearts full of love); Hb 12:3; 2 Pt 2:8; 1 Cl 16:12 (Is 53:11); 23:3 (scriptural quot. of unknown origin); B 3:1, 5b (s. on these two passages Is 58:3, 5, 10b); 19:3; Hm 4, 2, 2; 8:10; Hs 1:8; 7:4; D 3:9ab. ἐμεγαλύνθη ἡ ψυχή μου GJs 5:2; 19:2 (s. μεγαλύνω 1). αὔξειν τὴν ψυχὴν τοῦ Παύλου AcPl Ha 6, 10. It is also said of God in the anthropomorphic manner of expr. used by the OT ὁ ἀγαπητός μου εἰς ὸ̔ν εὐδόκησεν ἡ ψυχή μου Mt 12:18 (cp. Is 42:1); cp. Hb 10:38 (Hab 2:4).—One is to love God ἐν ὅλῃ τῇ ψυχῇ Mt 22:37; Lk 10:27. Also ἐξ ὅλης τῆς ψυχῆς (Dt 6:5; 10:12; 11:13) Mk 12:30, 33 v.l. (for ἰσχύος); Lk 10:27 v.l. (Epict. 2, 23, 42; 3, 22, 18; 4, 1, 131; M. Ant. 12, 29; Sextus 379.—X., Mem. 3, 11, 10 ὅλῃ τῇ ψυχῇ). ἐκ ψυχῆς from the heart, gladly (Jos., Ant. 17, 177.—The usual form is ἐκ τῆς ψυχῆς: X., An. 7, 7, 43, Apol. 18 al.; Theocr. 8, 35) Eph 6:6; Col 3:23; ἐκ ψυχῆς σου B 3:5a (Is 58:10a); 19:6. μιᾷ ψυχῇ with one mind (Dio Chrys. 19 [36], 30) Phil 1:27; cp. Ac 4:32 (on the combination w. καρδία s. that word 1bη and EpArist 17); 2 Cl 12:3 (s. 1 Ch 12:39b; Diog. L. 5, 20 ἐρωτηθεὶς τί ἐστι φίλος, ἔφη• μία ψυχὴ δύο σώμασιν ἐνοικοῦσα).

ⓓ as the seat and center of life that transcends the earthly (Pla., Phd. 28, 80ab; Paus. 4, 32, 4 ἀθάνατός ἐστιν ἀνθρώπου ψ.; Just., A I, 44, 9 περὶ ἀθανασίας ψυχῆς; Ath. 27, 2 ἀθάνατος οὖσα. Opp. Tat. 13, 1, who argues the state of the ψ. before the final judgment and states that it is not immortal per se but experiences the fate of the body οὐκ ἔστιν ἀθάνατος). As such it can receive divine salvation σῴζου σὺ καὶ ἡ ψυχή σου be saved, you and your soul Agr 5 (Unknown Sayings 61–64). σῴζειν τὰς ψυχάς Js 1:21. ψυχὴν ἐκ θανάτου 5:20; cp. B 19:10; Hs 6, 1, 1 (on death of the ψ. s. Achilles Tat. 7, 5, 3 τέθνηκας θάνατον διπλοῦν, ψυχῆς κ. σώματος). σωτηρία ψυχῶν 1 Pt 1:9. περιποίησις ψυχῆς Hb 10:39. It can also be lost 2 Cl 15:1; B 20:1; Hs 9, 26, 3. Humans cannot injure it, but God can hand it over to destruction Mt 10:28ab; AcPl Ha 1, 4. ζημιωθῆναι τὴν ψυχήν (ζημιόω 1) Mt 16:26a; Mk 8:36 (FGrant, Introd. to NT Thought, ’50, 162); 2 Cl 6:2. There is nothing more precious than ψυχή in this sense Mt 16:26b; Mk 8:37. It stands in contrast to σῶμα, in so far as that is σάρξ (cp. Ar. 15, 7 οὐ κατὰ σάρκα … ἀλλὰ κατὰ ψυχήν; Tat. 15, 1 οὔτε … χωρὶς σώματος; Ath. 1, 4 τὰ σώματα καὶ τὰς ψυχάς; SIG 383, 42 [I B.C.]) Dg 6:1–9. The believer’s soul knows God 2 Cl 17:1. One Christian expresses the hope that all is well w. another’s soul 3J 2 (s. εὐοδόω). For the soul of the Christian is subject to temptations 1 Pt 2:11 and 2 Pt 2:14; longs for rest Mt 11:29 (ParJer 5:32 ὁ θεὸς … ἡ ἀνάπαυσις τῶν ψυχῶν); and must be purified 1 Pt 1:22 (cp. Jer 6:16). The soul must be entrusted to God 1 Pt 4:19; cp. 1 Cl 27:1. Christ is its ποιμὴν καὶ ἐπίσκοπος (s. ἐπίσκοπος 1) 1 Pt 2:25; its ἀρχιερεὺς καὶ προστάτης 1 Cl 61:3; its σωτήρ MPol 19:2. Apostles and congregational leaders are concerned about the souls of the believers 2 Cor 12:15; Hb 13:17. The Christian hope is called the anchor of the soul 6:19. Paul calls God as a witness against his soul; if he is lying, he will forfeit his salvation 2 Cor 1:23.—Also life of this same eternal kind κτήσεσθε τὰς ψυχὰς ὑμῶν you will gain (real) life for yourselves Lk 21:19.

ⓔ Since the soul is the center of both the earthly (1a) and the transcendent (2d) life, pers. can find themselves facing the question concerning the wish to ensure it for themselves: ὸ̔ς ἐὰν θέλῃ τὴν ψυχὴν αὐτοῦ σῶσαι, ἀπολέσει αὐτὴν• ὸ̔ς δʼ ἂν ἀπολέσει τὴν ψυχὴν αὐτοῦ ἕνεκεν ἐμοῦ, σώσει αὐτήν Mk 8:35. Cp. Mt 10:39; 16:25; Lk 9:24; 17:33; J 12:25. The contrast betw. τὴν ψυχὴν εὑρεῖν and ἀπολέσαι is found in Mt 10:39ab (s. HGrimme, BZ 23, ’35, 263f); 16:25b; σῶσαι and ἀπολέσαι vs. 25a; Mk 8:35ab; Lk 9:24ab; περιποιήσασθαι, ζῳογονῆσαι and ἀπολέσαι 17:33; φιλεῖν and ἀπολλύναι J 12:25a; μισεῖν and φυλάσσειν vs. 25b.

ⓕ On the combination of ψυχή and πνεῦμα in 1 Th 5:23; Hb 4:12 (Just., D. 6, 2; Tat. 15, 1 χρὴ … ζευγνύναι … τὴν ψυχὴν τῷ πνεύματι τῷ ἁγίῳ) s. πνεῦμα 3a, end.—A-JFestugière, L’idéal religieux des Grecs et l’Évangile ’32, 212–17.—A unique combination is … σωμάτων, καὶ ψυχὰς ἀνθρώπων, slaves and human lives Rv 18:13 (cp. Ezk 27:13; on the syntax s. Mussies 98).

ⓖ In var. Semitic languages the reflexive relationship is paraphrased with נֶפֶשׁ (Gr.-Rom. parallels in W-S. §22, 18b note 33); the corresp. use of ψυχή may be detected in certain passages in our lit., esp. in quots. fr. the OT and in places where OT modes of expr. have had considerable influence (B-D-F §283, 4; W-S. §22, 18b; Mlt. 87; 105 n. 2; Rob. 689; KHuber, Untersuchungen über d. Sprachcharakter des griech. Lev., diss. Zürich 1916, 67), e.g. Mt 11:29; 26:38; Mk 10:45; 14:34; Lk 12:19; 14:26; J 10:24; 12:27; 2 Cor 1:23; 3J 2; Rv 18:14; 1 Cl 16:11 (Is 53:10); B 3:1, 3 (Is 58:3, 5); 4:2; 17:1. Cp. also 2 Cor 12:15; Hb 13:17; GJs 2:2; 13:2; 15:3 (on these last s. ταπεινόω 2b).

③ an entity w. personhood, person ext. of 2 by metonymy (cp. 1c): πᾶσα ψυχή everyone (Epict. 1, 28, 4; Lev 7:27; 23:29 al.) Ac 2:43; 3:23 (Lev 23:29); Ro 2:9; 13:1; Jd 15; 1 Cl 64; Hs 9, 18, 5.—Pl. persons, cp. our expression ‘number of souls’ (Pla. et al.; PTebt 56, 11 [II B.C.] σῶσαι ψυχὰς πολλάς; LXX) ψυχαὶ ὡσεὶ τρισχίλιαι Ac 2:41; cp. 7:14 (Ex 1:5); 27:37; 1 Pt 3:20.—This may also be the place for ἔξεστιν ψυχὴν σῶσαι ἢ ἀποκτεῖναι; is it permissible to rescue a person ( a human life is also poss.) or must we let the person die? Mk 3:4; Lk 6:9. Cp. 9:55 [56] v.l.—EHatch, Essays in Bibl. Gk. 1889, 112–24; ERohde, Psyche^9–10 1925; JBöhme, D. Seele u. das Ich im homer. Epos 1929; EBurton, Spirit, Soul and Flesh 1918; FRüsche, Blut, Leben u. Seele 1930; MLichtenstein, D. Wort nefeš in d. Bibel 1920; WStaples, The ‘Soul’ in the OT: JSL 44, 1928, 145–76; FBarth, La notion Paulinienne de ψυχή: RTP 44, 1911, 316–36; ChGuignebert, RHPR 9, 1929, 428–50; NSnaith, Life after Death: Int 1, ’47, 309–25; essays by OCullmann, HWolfson, WJaeger, HCadbury in Immortality and Resurrection, ed. KStendahl, ’65, 9–53; GDautzenberg, Sein Leben Bewahren ’66 (gospels); R Jewett, Paul’s Anthropological Terms, ’71, 334–57; also lit. cited GMachemer, HSCP 95, ’93, 121, 13.—TJahn, Zum Wortfeld ‘Seele-Geist’ in der Sprache Homers (Zetemata 83) ’81.—B. 1087. New Docs 4, 38f (trichotomy). DELG. M-M. EDNT. TW. Sv.

ἀπογραφή, ῆς, ἡ (s. ἀπογράφω; Lysias, Pla. et al.; SIG 1023, 45 and 71; 1109, 34; 1157, 33, OGI 338, 11 and 34; very freq. pap; LXX, EpArist, Joseph.; Just., A I, 34, 2, D. 78, 4) administrative term ‘list, inventory’ of the statistical reports and declarations of citizens for the purpose of completing the tax lists and family registers (s. Mitt-Wilck. I/1 175f; 178; 202ff; 225ff, I/2 198ff, esp. 202, the census edict of C. Vibius Maximus, 104 A.D. [=PLond III, 904, 25f, restored]; on this Dssm., LO 231f [LAE 268f]). Lk 2:2 the word means census, registration, of the census taken by Quirinius. Joseph. puts a census taken by Q. in 6/7 A.D. (cp. Jos., Bell. 7, 253, Ant. 18, 3). Presumably Ac 5:37 ἐν τ. ἡμέραις τ. ἀπογραφῆς also refers to this census. The chronology is full of problems, on which see the handbooks. See Schürer I 399–427 (lit.); Ramsay, Bearing 238ff; Zahn, Lk 129–35 and Exk. IV; EKlostermann, Hdb. on Lk 2:1–3; M-JLagrange, RB n.s. 8, 1911, 60–84; EGroag, Prosopogr. Beitr. VII (JÖAI 21/22, 1924 Beiblatt, cols. 445–78); HWindisch, NThT 16, 1927, 106–24; AvPremerstein, Ztschr. d. Savigny-Stiftg. f. Rechtsgeschichte 48, 1928, Rom. Abt. 449ff; LRTaylor, AJP 54, ’33, 120–33; RSyme, The Roman Revolution ’39, 397–401; ESeraphin, CBQ 7, ’45, 91–96; FHauck, Theol. Hndkomm., Lk p. 37; Goodsp., Probs. 71f; MHombert-CPréaux, Recherches sur le recensement dans l’Egypte romaine, ’52; EStauffer, Jesus, Gestalt u. Geschichte, ’57, Die Dauer des Census Augusti: Studien zum NT u. zur Patristik, ’61, 9–34; HInstinsky, D. Jahr der Geburt Christi, ’57; HBraunert, Historia 6, ’57, 192–214, Cives Romani und ΚΑΤʼ ΟΙΚΙΑΝ ΑΠΟΓΡΑΦΑΙ: Antidoron MDavid in Papyrologica Lugd.-Bat. vol. 17, ’68, 11–21 (lit.; EStauffer, Festschr. Klostermann ’61, 9ff; JThorley, The Nativity Census: What Does Luke Actually Say?: Greece and Rome, ser. 2, 26, ’79, 81–84; Haenchen ad loc.; BPalme, ProBib 2, ’93, 1–24). S. also on ἡγεμονεύω and Κυρήνιος.—Boffo, Iscrizioni 182f (lit.). New Docs 6, 115–19. DELG s.v. γράφω. M-M.

εἰκών, όνος, ἡ (Aeschyl., Hdt.+; loanw. in rabb.)

① an object shaped to resemble the form or appearance of someth., likeness, portrait (cp. Did., Gen. 82, 6) of the emperor’s head on a coin (so Artem. 4, 31; of an emperor’s image Jos., Bell. 2, 169; 194, Ant. 19, 185; cp. AcThom 112 [Aa II/2, 223, 19]; s. DShotter, Gods, Emperors, and Coins: Greece and Rome, 2d ser. 26, ’79, 48–57) Mt 22:20; Mk 12:16; Lk 20:24. Of an image of a god (Diod S 2, 8, 7 [Zeus]; Appian, Mithrid. 117 §575 θεῶν εἰκόνες; Lucian, Sacr. 11; 2 Ch 33:7; Is 40:19; Just., A I, 55, 7; Ath. 18, 1; s. TPodella, Das Lichtkleid ’96, esp. 83–88) Rv 13:14f; 14:9, 11; 15:2; 16:2; 19:20; 20:4.

② that which has the same form as someth. else (not a crafted object as in 1 above), living image, fig. ext. of 1 εἰκὼν τοῦ θεοῦ (ἄνθρωπος πλάσμα καὶ εἰκὼν αὐτοῦ [God] Theoph. Ant. 1, 4 [p. 64, 17]; w. ὁμοίωσις Did., Gen. 56, 28) of a man (cp. Mitt-Wilck. I/2, 109, 11 [III B.C.] Philopator as εἰκὼν τοῦ Διός; Rosetta Stone=OGI 90, 3 [196 B.C.] Ptolemy V as εἰκὼν ζῶσα τοῦ Διός, cp. APF 1, 1901, 483, 11; Plut., Themist. 125 [27, 4]; Lucian, Pro Imag. 28 εἰκόνα θεοῦ τ. ἄνθρωπον εἶναι; Diog. L. 6, 51 τ. ἀγαθοὺς ἄνδρας θεῶν εἰκόνας εἶναι; Sextus 190; Herm. Wr. 1, 12 al.; Apuleius as image of God, Rtzst., Mysterienrel.³ 43; JHehn, Zum Terminus ‘Bild Gottes’: ESachau Festschr. 1915, 36–52) 1 Cor 11:7 (on the gradation here cp. Herm. Wr. 11, 15a); of Christ (Helios as εἰκών of deity: Pla., Rep. 509; Proclus, Hymni 1, 33f [Orphica p. 277 Abel]; Herm. Wr. 11, 15; Stob. I 293, 21=454, 1ff Sc.; Hierocles 1, 418: the rest of the gods are εἰκόνες of the primeval god.—The Logos: Philo, Conf. Ling. 97; 147. Wisdom: Wsd 7:26) 2 Cor 4:4; Col 1:15 (εἰ. τοῦ θεοῦ ἐστιν ὁ υἱὸς αὐτοῦ ὁ μονογενής Did., Gen. 58, 3; cp. εἰκὼν γὰρ τοῦ … θεοῦ ὁ λόγος ἐστὶ αὐτοῦ Orig., C. Cels. 4, 85, 24.—EPreuschen, ZNW 18, 1918, 243).—εἰ. τοῦ χοϊκοῦ, τοῦ ἐπουρανίου image of the earthly, heavenly (human being) 1 Cor 15:49. (See SMcCasland, The Image of God Acc. to Paul: JBL 69, ’50, 85–100). The image corresponds to its original (cp. ὁμοίωμα 2ab; Doxopatres [XI A.D.]: Rhet. Gr. II 160, 1 εἰ. καὶ ὁμοίωμα διαφέρει; Mel., P. 36, 245 διὰ τῆς τυπικῆς εἰκόνος; 38, 262 τοῦ μέλλοντος ἐν αὐτῷ τὴν εἰκόνα βλέπεις and oft. in typological exegesis of the OT).

③ that which represents someth. else in terms of basic form and features, form, appearance (Istros [III B.C.]: no. 334 Fgm. 53 Jac. ἀνθρωποειδὴς εἰκών=a human figure; Artem. 1, 35 p. 36, 5 τὸ πρόσωπον κ. τὴν εἰκόνα=the face and the form; Ps.-Callisth. 2, 27; Hierocles 20, 465: to his followers Pythagoras has θείαν εἰκόνα=the appearance of a god; Cleopatra ln. 154 ἐτελειώθη ἡ εἰκὼν σώματι κ. ψυχῇ κ. πνεύματι; Herm. Wr. 1, 12 of the first human being, the son of the πατὴρ πάντων: τὴν τοῦ πατρὸς εἰκόνα ἔχων; 5, 6; En 106:10) ὁμοίωμα εἰκόνος φθαρτοῦ ἀνθρώπου the likeness of mortal human form Ro 1:23 (MHooker, NTS 6, ’60, 297–306). συμμόρφους τῆς εἰ. τοῦ υἱοῦ conformed to the appearance of his Son 8:29; cp. 2 Cor 3:18; εἰ. τ. πραγμάτων form of things in contrast to their σκιά Hb 10:1.—The infl. of Gen 1:26f is very strong (κατʼ εἰκόνα θεοῦ; TestNapht 2:5; Tat. 12, 1 al.; Just., A I, 63, 16 εἰκόνος ἀσωμάτου. See AStruker, D. Gottesebenbildlichkeit d. Menschen in d. christl. Lit d. zwei erst. Jahrh. 1913). Humans made by God ἐκ τῆς ἰδίας εἰ. in God’s own form Dg 10:2; cp. τῆς ἑαυτοῦ εἰ. χαρακτήρ 1 Cl 33:4; cp. vs. 5; B 5:5; 6:12. Gen 1:27 also infl. Col 3:10: the new human is made new κατʼ εἰκόνα τοῦ κτίσαντος αὐτόν. (Philo, Leg. All. 3, 96, in Platonic fashion, expresses the thought that first of all an image proceeded fr. God, which, in turn, served as a model for humans; against this view s. FEltester, Eikon im NT, ’58, 157).—EKäsemann, Leib u. Leib Christi: Beiträge zur Hist. Theol. 9, ’33, 81–88, 147–50; J Bover, ‘Imaginis’ notio apud B. Paulum: Biblica 4, 1923, 174–79; HWillms, Εἰκών I ’35; ESelwyn, Image, Fact and Faith: NTS 1, ’55, 235–47; GLadner, RAC IV, ’59, 771–86 (lit.); JJervell, Imago Dei (Genesis, late Judaism, Gnosis, NT) FRLANT no. 58, ’60; KPrümm, Verbum Domini 40, ’62, 232–57 (Paul); ELarsson, Christus als Vorbild, ’62.—DELG s.v. ἔοικα. M-M. EDNT. TW. Spicq. Sv.

εὐεργέτης, ου, ὁ (s. prec. two entries; Pind. et al.; ins, pap, LXX; Tat. 18:12) benefactor as a title of princes and other honored pers., esp. those recognized for their civic contributions (Hdt. 8, 85; X., Hell. 6, 1, 4 al.; esp. ins [SIG² index III 5 p. 175, VI p. 321; also SIG index IV]; POxy 38, 13 [I A.D.]; 486, 27. Coins [Dssm., LO 215, 4/LAE 249, 1]. Esth 8:12n; 2 Macc 4:2; 3 Macc 3:19; Philo, Omn. Prob. Lib. 118, In Flacc. 81; Jos., Bell. 3, 459. S. JOehler, Pauly-W. VI 978–81; Magie 67f) Lk 22:25 (on the thought cp. Aeschin. 3, 248–50; s. also DLull, NovT 29, ’86, 289–305). Of God (Ael. Aristid. 43, 29 K.=1 p. 11 D. of Zeus; Plut., Mor. 355e Osiris μέγας βασιλεὺς εὐ.; Philo of Byblus in Eus., PE 1, 9, 29; CIG 5041=Mitt-Wilck. I/2, 116, 6 Isis and Sarapis as εὐεργέται; Philo, Spec. Leg. 1, 209, Congr. Erud. Grat. 171 and oft.; PGM 4, 992; 1048.—Wendland, Kultur 103; 121f; RKnopf on 1 Cl 19:2) εὐ. πνευμάτων 1 Cl 59:3.—ESkard, Zwei relig.-politische Begriffe: Euergetes-Concordia ’32; ANock, Soter and Euergetes: The Joy of Study (FGrant Festschr.) ’51, 127–48; A Passoni dell’ Acqua, Aegyptus 76, 177–91; FDanker, Proclamation Commentaries: Luke, ’87, 28–46, Benefactor, ’82, 323–25; The Endangered Benefactor in Luke-Acts: SBLSP 20, ’81, 39–48; on philosophical perspectives s. CManning, Liberalitas, The Decline and Rehabilitation of a Virtue: Greece and Rome 2d ser. 32, ’85, 73–83; RAC VI 848–60.—Larfeld I 495. M-M. EDNT. TW. Spicq. Sv.

κλαίω (Hom.+) impf. ἔκλαιον; fut. (B-D-F §77; Mlt-H. 244) κλαύσω (TestJob, ApcMos, Just., Tat.) and κλαύσομαι (LXX; Rv 18:9 v.l.; Hv 3, 3, 2; Jos., Bell. 1, 628; SibOr 5, 170); 1 aor. ἔκλαυσα; mid.-pass. ἐκλαύσθην; fut. κλαυσθήσομαι LXX.

① weep, cry Mk 14:72; Lk 7:38; J 11:31, 33; 20:11, 13, 15; Ac 9:39; 21:13; 1 Cl 48:1; Hv 4, 1, 7; GJs 3:1 v.l.; AcPl Ha 1, 31; 6, 4. πικρῶς (q.v.) Mt 26:75; Lk 22:62; GJs 13:1; 15:3. πολύ vehemently Rv 5:4. πολλά Ac 8:24 D; λίαν κ. weep bitterly Hm 3:3. μὴ κλαῖε, μὴ κλαίετε do not weep Lk 7:13; 8:52b; 23:28a; Rv 5:5. Of mourning for the dead (s. on ἀλαλάζω 1) Mk 5:38f; Lk 7:32; 8:52. ἐπί w. acc. over (Judg 14:17 A; TestJob 40:11 al.; s. B-D-F §233, 2) Lk 19:41; 23:28ab. Also ἐπί τινι (Plut., Mor. 216d; Synes., Ep. 140 p. 277a; Sir 22:11) Lk 19:41 v.l. (on weeping and lamenting over the imminent destruction of Jerusalem cp. τὸν ἐπὶ τῇ πόλει θρῆνον by Jesus, son of Ananias: Jos., Bell. 6, 304–9). W. κόπτεσθαι (Jos., Ant. 13, 399; on lamentation for one yet living cp. Thetis for Achilles Il. 18, 52–64; Andromache for Hector 6, 407–39.) Lk 8:52; Rv 18:9; GPt 12:52, 54. W. λυπεῖσθαι (TestZeb 4:8; ParJer 7:26; Iren. 1, 4, 2 [Harv. I 36, 1]) GPt 14:59. W. πενθεῖν (POxy 528, 8 νυκτὸς κλαίων ἡμέρας δὲ πενθῶν) Mk 16:10; Lk 6:25; Js 4:9; Rv 18:11, 15, 19; GPt 7:27.—As an expression of any feeling of sadness, care, or anxiety J 16:20 (w. θρηνεῖν, as Iren. 1, 14, 8 [Harv. I 143, 4]); 1 Cor 7:30; Js 5:1. (Opp. γελᾶν) Lk 6:21, 25; GJs 17:2. (Opp. χαίρειν as Hippocr., Ep. 17, 49) J 16:20; Ro 12:15 (cp. Diod S 13, 22, 5); Hv 3, 3, 2. κλαίων λέγω I say with tears Phil 3:18; Hv 1, 2, 2. κλαίουσα προσεύξομαι GJs 2:4 (sc. cod. A).

② weep for, bewail τινά someone trans. (as early as Hom.; Sb 4313, 15; Jer 8:23; 22:10; 1 Macc 9:20; TestSim 9; ParJer 4:5; ApcEsdr 6:25 p. 32, 4 Tdf.; Ar. 11:3; Just., D. 78, 8; Tat. 8:4) Mt 2:18; Rv 18:9 v.l. (B-D-F §148, 2; Rob. 475).—MGolden, Did the Ancients Care When Their Children Died?: Greece and Rome 35, ’88, 152–63; IMorris, Death, Ritual and Social Structure in Classical Antiquity ’92.—B. 1129. DELG. M-M. EDNT. TW.

Grammatical information: m.

Meaning: `caricature' (Plin. HN 35, 114);

Derivatives: γρυλλο-γραφέω `draw caricatures' (Phld.). Also a dance (Phryn. PS p. 58 B.); thus also γρυλλισμός, with γρύλλος = ὁ ὀρχούμενος (ibid.).

Origin: XX [etym. unknown]

Etymology: Called Egyptian, i.e. hellenistic, by Phrynichos, s. Latte Glotta 34, 190f. Not from the PN Γρύλλος (Plin.) Latte l.c. Further Page, CR 7 (1957)189-191, Maas, Greece and Rome 5 (1958) 71. There is no relation between γρύλλος and γρῦλος. Chantr. thinks the connection between dance and caricature is evident.

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μαλακός, ή, όν (s. two prec. entries; ‘soft’: Hom. et al.; ins, pap, LXX, Philo; Jos., Ant. 8, 72 βύσσος μ.; Mel., P. 80, 594 στρωμνῆς μ.)

① pert. to being yielding to touch, soft, of things: clothes (Hom. et al.; Artem. 1, 78 p. 73, 10 ἱματίων πολυτελῶν κ. μαλακῶν; PSI 364, 5 ἱμάτιον μαλ.) μ. ἱμάτια soft garments, such as fastidious people wear Lk 7:25. (τὰ) μ. soft clothes (Sb 6779, 57; s. λευκός 2, end) Mt 11:8ab.

② pert. to being passive in a same-sex relationship, effeminate esp. of catamites, of men and boys who are sodomized by other males in such a relationship, opp. ἀρσενοκοίτης (Dionys. Hal. 7, 2, 4; Dio Chrys. 49 [66], 25; Ptolem., Apotel. 3, 15, 10; Vett. Val. 113, 22; Diog. L. 7, 173; PHib 54, 11 [c. 245 B.C.] may have this mng.: a musician called Zenobius ὁ μαλακός [prob. with a sideline, according to Dssm., LO 131, 4—LAE 164, 4]. S. also a Macedon. ins in LDuchesne and CBayet, Mémoire sur une Mission au Mont Athos 1876 no. 66 p. 46; Plautus, Miles 668 cinaedus [Gk. κίναιδος] malacus; cp. the atttack on the morality of submissive homoeroticism Aeschin. 1, 188; DCohen, Greece and Rome 23, ’76, 181f) 1 Cor 6:9 (‘male prostitutes’ NRSV is too narrow a rendering; ‘sexual pervert’ REB is too broad)=Pol 5:3.—S. lit. s.v. ἀρσενοκοίτης. B. 1065. DELG. M-M.

δηνάριον, ου, τό (Lat. denarius as δηνάριον first in two ins fr. Acraephiae of the time of Sulla [IG IX/2, 415 b, 89]. Exx. fr. later times in Hahn 271 word-index; OGI ind. VIII; cp. Preis. III 346; loanw. in rabb.) denarius, a Roman silver coin orig. c. 4.55 g; the debasement of coinage under Nero reduced it in value; it was a worker’s average daily wage (cp. Tob 5:15; Talmud Babli: Aboda Zara 62a; SBastomsky, Greece and Rome, ser. 2, 37, ’90, 37) Mt 18:28; 20:2, 9f, 13; 22:19; Mk 6:37; 12:15; 14:5; Lk 7:41; 10:35; 20:24; J 6:7; 12:5; Rv 6:6. τὸ ἀνὰ δηνάριον a denarius each, like the others before them Mt 20:10 (B-D-F §266, 2).—Hultsch, Pauly-W. V 202ff; KRegling, Wörterbuch der Münzkunde, ed. FSchrötter, 1930, 126ff; Kl. Pauly I, 1488–90; IDB III 428, illustr. 29 p. 433; Schürer II 65.—Other reff. s. ἀργύριον end.—M-M.

Παῦλος, ου, ὁ Paul, a Roman surname (never a praenomen), found in lit. (e.g. Diod S 14, 44, 1; 15, 76, 1), ins, pap; Mel., HE 4, 26, 3)

① Sergius Paulus s. Σέργιος.

② Paul, the apostle of Jesus Christ; fr. the beginning he bore the Israelite name Saul as well as the Graeco-Roman Paul (difft. e.g. HDessau, Her 45, 1910, 347–68 and EMeyer III 197; s. GHarrer, HTR 33, ’40, 19–33.—Σαούλ 2 and Σαῦλος), prob. born in Tarsus (s. Ταρσός), and perh. brought up there (but s. WvUnnik, Tarsus or Jerusalem, ’62), born a Roman citizen. He was educated in Mosaic tradition, but was not untouched by the syncretistic thought-world in which he lived. At first he was a zealous Pharisee and as such a vehement foe of Christians, but his perspective was changed by a vision of Jesus Christ (OKietzig, D. Bekehrg. d. Pls ’32; EPfaff, Die Bekehrg. d. hl. Pls in d. Exegese des 20. Jahrh. ’42; CBurchard, Der Dreizehnte Zeuge, ’70, 126 n. 278 [lit. since ’54]). Most prominent of the apostles to the nations/gentiles. As such he worked in Nabataean Arabia, Syria, and Cilicia, traveled through Cyprus, Asia Minor, Macedonia, and Greece, and planned a missionary journey via Italy to Spain (s. Σπανία). He was prevented fr. carrying out this plan (at least at this time) by his subsequent arrest in Jerusalem and the lawsuit connected w. it (NVeldhoen, Het Proces van den Ap. Pls 1924; ESpringer, D. Proz. des Ap. Pls: PJ 218, 1929, 182–96; HCadbury, Roman Law and the Trial of Paul: Beginn. I/5, ’33, 297–338). He reached Rome only as a prisoner (on the journey FDavies, St. Paul’s Voyage to Rome ’31), and was prob. executed there: Ac 9 and 13–28; Ro 1:1; 1 Cor 1:1, 12f; 3:4f, 22; 16:21; 2 Cor 1:1; 10:1; Gal 1:1; 5:2; Eph 1:1; 3:1; Phil 1:1; Col 1:1, 23; 4:18; 1 Th 1:1; 2:18; 2 Th 1:1; 3:17; 1 Ti 1:1; 2 Ti 1:1; Tit 1:1; Phlm 1, 9, 19; 2 Pt 3:15; Pol 9:1; (11:2, 3). AcPl Ant 13, 9 recto and 15 verso (= Aa I 237, 1f) and 66 times AcPl Ha, including once ὁ μακάριος Π. AcPl Ha 3, 27; the same 4 times in AcPlCor. ὁ μακάριος Π. ὁ ἀπόστολος 1 Cl 47:1. Π. ὁ ἡγιασμένος, ὁ μεμαρτυρημένος, ἀξιομακάριστος IEph 12:2. ὁ μακάριος καὶ ἔνδοξος Π. Pol 3:2. Mentioned w. Peter 1 Cl 5:5; IRo 4:3.—S. also ApcEsdr 5:22 p. 30, 24 Tdf.; with John ApcEsdr 1:19 p. 25, 13 Tdf.—CClemen, Paulus 1904, where the older lit. is given. Other lit. in RBultmann, TRu n.s. 6, ’34, 229–46; 8, ’36, 1–22; WLyons and MParvis, NT Literature 1943–45, ’48, 225–39; GBornkamm, RGG³ V, ’61, 189f; ABD s.v.—ADeissmann, Pls² 1925 (Eng. tr. WWilson 1926); EvDobschütz, Der Ap. Pls I 1926; LMurillo, Paulus 1926; KPieper, Pls., Seine missionarische Persönlichkeit u. Wirksamkeit^2,3 1929; EBaumann, Der hl. Pls 1927; PFeine, Der Ap. Pls 1927; RLiechtenhan, Pls 1928; HLietzmann, Gesch. d. Alten Kirche I ’32, 102–31; JStewart, A Man in Christ ’36; CScott, St. Paul, the Man and the Teacher ’36; ANock, St. Paul ’38; TGlover, Paul of Tarsus ’38; CYver, S. Paul ’39; VGrÿnbech, Paulus ’40; WvLoewenich, Pls ’40; DRiddle, Paul, Man of Conflict ’40; EBuonaiuti, San Paolo ’41; JBover, San Pablo ’41; EAllo, Paul ’42; JKlausner, Fr. Jesus to Paul ’43; EGoodspeed, Paul ’47; JKnox, Chapters in a Life of Paul ’50; MDibelius, Paulus ’51; ²’56, with WKümmel (Eng. tr. FClarke ’53); EFascher, Pauly-W. Suppl. VIII 431–66, ’57.—FPrat, La théologie de S. Paul 1924f (Eng. tr. JStoddard ’57); CScott, Christianity Acc. to St. Paul 1928; OMoe, Apostolen Pls’ Forkyndelse og Laere 1928; AKristoffersen, Åpenbaringstanke og misjonsforkynnelse hos Pls, diss. Upps. ’38; RGuardini, Jes. Chr. I (in Paul) ’40; ChGuignebert, Le Christ ’43, 3 (Paulinisme).—A Schweitzer, D. Mystik des Ap. Pls 1930 (Eng. tr. WMontgomery ’31); MGoguel, La Mystique Paulin.: RHPhr 11, ’31, 185–210; MDibelius, Pls u. d. Mystik ’41; AFaux, L’ Orphisme et St. Paul: RHE 27, ’31, 245–92; 751–91; HWindisch, Pls u. Christus, E. bibl.-rel. gesch. Vergleich ’34.—EEidem, Det kristna Livet enligt Pls I 1927; MEnslin, The Ethics of Paul 1930; LMarshall, The Challenge of NT Ethics ’46; DWhiteley, The Theol. of St. Paul, ’64.—APuukko, Pls u. d. Judentum: Studia Orientalia 2, 1928, 1–86; HWindisch, Pls u. d. Judentum ’35; NMansson, Paul and the Jews ’47; WKnox, St. Paul and the Church of the Gentiles ’39.—ASteinmann, Z. Werdegang des Pls. Die Jugendzeit in Tarsus 1928; EBarnikol, D. vorchristl. u. früchristl. Zeit des Pls 1929; AOepke, Probleme d. vorchristl. Zeit des Pls: StKr 105, ’33, 387–424; GBornkamm, D. Ende des Gesetzes, Paulusstudien ’52.—WKümmel, Jes. u. Pls: ThBl 19, ’40, 209–31; ASchlatter, Jes. u. Pls ’40; WDavies, Paul and Rabbinic Judaism ⁴’80.—GRicciotti, Paul the Apostle (Eng. tr. AlZizzamia) ’53; JSevenster, Paul and Seneca, ’61; H-JSchoeps, Paulus ’59 (Engl. tr. HKnight, ’61); BMetzger, Index to Periodical Lit. on Paul ’60; Wv Loewenich, Paul: His Life and Works (transl. GHarris), ’60; WSchmithals, Paul and James (transl. DBarton), ’65; EGüttgemanns, D. Leidende Apostel, ’66; HBraun, Qumran u. d. NT ’66, 165–80; SPorter, The Paul of Acts ’99; additional lit. HBetz, ABD V 199–201.—LGPN I. M-M. EDNT. TW.

συναγωγή, ῆς, ἡ (Thu. et al.; ins, pap, LXX, Just.). The term ς. is fluid, and its use as a loanword in Eng. in connection with cult suggests a technical usage that belies the extraordinary breadth of use of ς. Orig. in act. sense ‘a bringing together, assembling’, then in LXX and contemporary documents ‘a gathering’ or ‘place of assembly’.—For ins evidence relating to cultic usage s. ROster, NTS 39, ’93, 181 n. 14 (the principal corpora); for synonyms, p. 186; cp. New Docs 4, 202f.

① a place where someth. collects, gathering place of the basins in which water is gathered at the creation (Gen 1:9; cp. Jos., Ant. 15, 346 ς. ὑδάτων; Did., Gen. 25, 14 ς., ἣν καλεῖν εἰώθασιν ὠκεανόν) 1 Cl 20:6.

② a place of assembly (Cybeleins [Bilderatlas z. Religionsgesch. 9–11, 1926 p. xix no. 154] ἐν τῇ τοῦ Διὸς συναγωγῇ; s. New Docs 3, 43. Sb 4981, 6f [restored].—On συναγωγή as a room for meetings cp. συνέδρια of the meeting-houses of the Pythagoreans Polyb. 2, 39, 1).

ⓐ of the Jewish synagogue (it is used for a place of assembly for Jews in Philo, Omn. Prob. Lib. 81 [w. ref. to the Essenes]; Jos., Bell. 2, 285; 289; 7, 44, Ant. 19, 300; 305; CIG 9894; 9904; BCH 21, 1897 p. 47; Συναγωγὴ Ἑβραίων in Corinth [s. Κόρινθος, end], in Rome [CIG IV, 9909] and ILydiaKP III, 42 p. 32ff.—S. AvHarnack, Mission⁴ II 1924, p. 568, 2; GKittel, TLZ 69, ’44, 11f.—Orig., C. Cels. 6, 23, 3; Hippol., Ref. 9, 12, 7); people came to the συν. to worship God Mt 4:23; 6:2, 5; 9:35; 12:9; 13:54; Mk 1:39; 3:1; 6:2; Lk 4:15; 6:6; J 18:20. In the same buildings court was also held and punishment was inflicted: Mt 10:17; 23:34; Mk 13:9; Lk 12:11; 21:12; Ac 22:19; 26:11 (HKee, NTS 36, ’90, 1–24 perceives Acts as reading a post-70 situation into Paul’s career; rejoinder ROster, ibid 39, ’93, 178–208, with caution against reliance on mere transliteration of ς. and w. conclusion that Luke is not guilty of anachronism; response by Kee, ibid. 40, ’94, 281–83 [also 41, ’95, 481–500], w. observation that the inscription from the syngagogue of Theodotus in Jerusalem [s. Dssm. LO 378–80=LAE 439–41; Boffo, Iscrizioni no. 31] may well be no earlier than IV A.D.; for critique of Kee’s views s. also ESanders, Jewish Law from Jesus to the Mishnah, ’87, 341–43 notes 28 and 29. For early use in reference to a Jewish synagogue, s. New Docs 4, 202, IBerenike 16, 5 [55 A.D.] of a building, ln. 3 of members meeting in it). Synagogues are also mentioned as existing in Antioch in Pisidia 13:14; Athens 17:17; Berea vs. 10; Damascus 9:20; Ephesus 18:19 (GHorsley, The Inscriptions of Ephesus and the NT: NovT 34, ’92, 105–68); Capernaum Mk 1:21; Lk 4:33; 7:5; J 6:59 (HKohl and CWatzinger, Antike Synagogen in Galiläa 1916; HVincent, RB 30, 1921, 438ff; 532ff; GOrfali, Capharnaum et ses ruines 1922); Corinth Ac 18:4 (s. New Docs 3, 121); Ephesus 19:8; Nazareth Lk 4:16; Salamis on the island of Cyprus Ac 13:5; Thessalonica 17:1.—ESukenik, Ancient Synagogues in Palestine and Greece ’34.—On the building of synagogues by patrons s. TRajak, Benefactors in the Greco-Jewish Diaspora, in MHengel Festschr. I ’96, 307 n. 7 lit.—On the relationship betw. συναγωγή and προσευχή (q.v. 2) s. SKrauss, Synagogale Altertümer 1922, 11; Boffo, Iscrizioni 39–46; Pauly-W. 2d ser. IV ’32, 1284–1316; ERivkin, AHSilver Festschr. ’63, 350–54.—AGroenman, De Oorsprong der Joodsche Synagoge: NThT 8, 1919, 43–87; 137–88; HStrack, RE XIX 221–26; Elbogen² 444ff; 571ff; Billerb. IV, 115–52 (the Syn. as an institution), 153–88 (the Syn. services); GDalman, Jesus-Jeshua (tr. PLevertoff) 1929, 38–55; SSafrai, MStern et al., The Jewish People in the 1st Century II, ’77, 908–44; LLevine, The Second Temple Synagogue, The Formative Years: The Synagogue in Late Antiquity ’87, 7–31; Schürer II 423–63; III 138–49; s. also lit. cited by Oster, Kee, and Boffo above.

ⓑ an assembly-place for Judeo-Christians (Nazarenes) can also be meant in Js 2:2 (so LRost, PJ 29, ’33, 53–66, esp. 54f but s. 4 below). εἰς ς. πλήρη ἀνδρῶν Hm 11:14 (cp. the superscription on a Marcionite assembly-place near Damascus συναγωγὴ Μαρκιωνιστῶν [OGI 608, 1 fr. 318/19 A.D.]; Harnack, SBBerlAK 1915, 754ff). S. 5 below.

③ the members of a synagogue, (the congregation of a) synagogue (Just., D. 53, 4 al.; references for this usage in Schürer II 423f; III 81–86; EPeterson, Byz.-Neugriech. Jahrbücher 2, 1921, 208)

ⓐ of localized synagogues Ac 6:9 (Schürer II 428; cp. CIJ 683 [=Corpus Ins. Regni Bosporani ’65 no. 70], for translation and ill. see RMackennan, Bar 22/2, ’96, 47); 9:2.

ⓑ in a limited sense, of those who consider themselves Ἰουδαῖοι but are hostile to Christians (who also identify themselves as Ἰουδαῖοι whether Israelite by descent or believers from the nations—on the mixed composition of the followers of Jesus Christ s. Ac 13:43; ISm 1:2), and are called (instead of συναγωγὴ κυρίου: Num 16:3; 20:4; 27:17; Josh 22:16; Ps 73:2) συναγωγὴ τοῦ σατανᾶ synagogue of Satan Rv 2:9; 3:9 (cp. Just., D. 104, 1 ἡ ς. τῶν πονηρευομένων; s. 5 below).

④ a synagogal meeting, a meeting, gathering for worship, of the Judeans λυθείσης τῆς συναγωγῆς Ac 13:43 (s. λύω 3).—Transferred to meetings of Judeo-Christian congregations (cp. TestBenj 11:2, 3; Just., D. 63, 5; 124, 1; Theoph. Ant. 2, 14 [p. 136, 12]) ἐὰν εἰσέλθῃ εἰς συναγωγὴν ὑμῶν Js 2:2 (this is the preferred interpr.: HermvSoden, Ropes, Meinertz, FHauck; s. 2b above). συναγωγὴ ἀνδρῶν δικαίων Hm 11:9, 13, cp. 14. πυκνότερον συναγωγαὶ γινέσθωσαν meetings (of the congregation) should be held more often IPol 4:2. (συναγ. is also found outside Jewish and Christian circles for periodic meetings; s. the exx. in MDibelius, Jakobus 1921 p. 124, 1. Also Philo Bybl.: 790 Fgm. 4, 52 Jac. [in Eus., PE 1, 10, 52] Ζωροάστρης ἐν τῇ ἱερᾷ συναγωγῇ τῶν Περσικῶν φησι; OGI 737, 1 [II B.C.] ς. ἐν τῷ Ἀπολλωνείῳ; PLond 2710 recto, 12: HTR 29, ’36, 40; 51.—Sb 8267, 3 [5 B.C.] honorary ins of a polytheistic ς.=association. W. ref. to the imperial cult BGU 1137, 2 [6 B.C.]. On the Christian use of the word s. also ADeissmann, Die Urgeschichte des Christentums im Lichte der Sprachforschung 1910, 35f).

⑤ a group of pers. who band together, freq. with hostile intent, band, gang ς. πονηρευομένων (Ps 21:17) B 5:13; 6:6; GJs 15:1 v.l. (for σύνοδος).—SSafrai, The Synagogue: CRINT I/2, 908–44; WSchrage, BHHW III 1906–10; Kl. Pauly V 451f.—S. ἀρχισυναγωγός and New Docs 4, 213–20. DELG s.v. ἄγω. EDNT. DLNT 1141–46. M-M. TW.

δοῦλος, η, ον (s. next entry; Soph. et al.; PGiss 3, 5 ᾧ πάντα δοῦλα; Ps 118:91; Wsd 15:7; Philo; Jos., Ant. 16, 156; Ar. [Milne, 76, 49]; SibOr 3, 567) pert. to being under someone’s total control, slavish, servile, subject τὰ μέλη δ. τῇ ἀκαθαρσίᾳ the members enslaved to impurity Ro 6:19; τῇ δικαιοσύνῃ ibid.—Subst. τὰ δοῦλα things subservient PtK 2 (s. ὕπαρξις 1).—DELG. TW.

δοῦλος, ου, ὁ (Trag., Hdt.et al.; ins, pap, LXX, Philo, Joseph., Test12Patr)

① male slave as an entity in a socioeconomic context, slave (‘servant’ for ‘slave’ is largely confined to Biblical transl. and early American times [s. OED s.v. servant, 3a and b]; in normal usage at the present time the two words are carefully distinguished [Goodsp., Probs., 77–79]). Opp. ἐλεύθερος 1 Cor 7:21. Lit., in contrast

ⓐ to a master (Did., Gen. 66, 25): Mt 8:9; 10:24f; cp. J 13:16; 15:20.—Mt 13:27f; 21:34ff; 24:45f, 48, 50; 25:14, 19, 21, 23, 26, 30; cp. Lk 19:13, 15, 17, 22.—Mt 26:51; cp. Mk 14:47; Lk 22:50; J 18:10, 26 (on δοῦλος of the ἀρχιερεύς s. Jos., Ant. 20, 181).—Mk 12:2, 4; 13:34; Lk 7:2f, 8, 10; 12:37, 43, 45ff; 17:7, 9f; J 4:51; Col 4:1 (Billerb. IV 698–744: D. altjüd. Sklavenwesen; SZucrow, Women, Slaves, etc. in Rabb. Lit. ’32; JJeremias, Jerusalem IIb ’37, 184–88; 217–24).—οἱ δ. και οἱ ὑπηρέται J 18:18.—Of slaves sent out with invitations Mt 22:3f, 6, 8, 10; par. Lk 14:17, 21ff; of one who could not pay his debt Mt 18:23, 26ff (but s. 2bα on these pass. fr. Mt). Opp. δεσπότης (as Diod S 15, 8, 2f ὡς δοῦλος δεσπότῃ; Ps.-Lucian, Asin. 5) 1 Ti 6:1; Tit 2:9; οἱ δ. in direct address Eph 6:5; Col 3:22.—For lit. on Christianity and slavery (Ath. 35, 1 δ. εἰσιν ἡμῖν ‘we have slaves’ [who can attest our innocence of the charges]) s. on χράομαι la.—Christ, the heavenly κύριος, appears on earth in μορφὴ δούλου the form of a slave (anticipating vs. 8 w. its ref. to crucifixion, a fate reserved for condemned slaves; for the contrast cp. Lucian, Catapl. 13 δοῦλος ἀντὶ τοῦ πάλαι βασιλέως) Phil 2:7 (lit. on κενόω 1b); cp. Hs 5, 2ff (on this MDibelius, Hdb. 564f).—On Ac 2:18 s. under 2bβ.

ⓑ to a free pers. (opp. ἐλεύθερος: Pla., Gorg. 57 p. 502d; Dio Chrys. 9 [10], 4; SIG 521, 7 [III B.C.]; Jos., Ant. 16, 126; Just., D. 139, 5) 1 Cor 7:21f (cp. the trimeter: Trag. Fgm. Adesp. 304 N., quot. fr. M. Ant. 11, 30 and Philo, Omn. Prob. Lib. 48, δοῦλος πέφυκας, οὐ μέτεστί σοι λόγου=you are a slave, with no share in discussions); 12:13; Gal 3:28; 4:1; Eph 6:8; Col 3:11; Rv 6:15; 13:16; 19:18; IRo 4:3. W. παιδίσκη D 4:10.—House slave in contrast to a son J 8:35; Gal 4:7.

ⓒ in contrast to being a fellow Christian οὐκέτι ὡς δοῦλον, ἀλλὰ ὑπὲρ δοῦλον, ἀδελφὸν ἀγαπητόν Phlm 16.

② one who is solely committed to another, slave, subject; ext. of mng. 1. Mt 6:24; Lk 16:13 express the ancient perspective out of which such extended usage develops: slaves are duty-bound only to their owners or masters, or those to whom total allegiance is pledged.

ⓐ in a pejorative sense δ. ἀνθρώπων slaves to humans 1 Cor 7:23. παριστάναι ἑαυτόν τινι δοῦλον Ro 6:16. δ. τῆς ἁμαρτίας slave of sin J 8:34; Ro 6:17, 20. τῆς φθορᾶς of destruction 2 Pt 2:19 (cp. Eur., Hec. 865 and Plut., Pelop. 279 [3, 1] χρημάτων; Thu. 3, 38, 5; Dio Chrys. 4, 60 τ. δόξης; Athen. 12, 531c τῶν ἡδονῶν; 542d; Aelian, VH 2, 41 τοῦ πίνειν; Achilles Tat. 6, 19, 4 τ. ἐπιθυμίας).

ⓑ in a positive sense

α. in relation to a superior human being (here the perspective is Oriental and not Hellenic). Of humble service (opp. πρῶτος) Mt 20:27; Mk 10:44. According to oriental usage, of a king’s officials (cp. SIG 22, 4; IMagnMai 115, 4; 1 Km 29:3; 4 Km 5:6; Jos., Ant. 2, 70) ministers Mt 18:23, 26ff (s. Spicq, I 383, n. 14 [Lexique 394, n. 4]); cp. the slaves sent out with invitations 22:3f, 6, 8, 10; Lk 14:17, 21ff (but s. 1a above).

β. esp. of the relationship of humans to God (with roots in both OT and Hellenic thought; s. δουλεύω 2aβ) δ. τοῦ θεοῦ slave of God=subject to God, owned body and soul (Eur., Ion 309 τοῦ θεοῦ καλοῦμαι δοῦλος εἰμί τε; Cass. Dio 63, 5, 2; CFossey, Inscr. de Syrie: BCH 21, 1897, p. 60 [Lucius calls himself the δοῦλος of the θεὰ Συρία]; PGM 12, 71 δ. τοῦ ὑψ. θεοῦ; 13, 637ff δοῦλός εἰμι σὸς … Σάραπι; 59, 2; 4; LXX; ParJer 6:17 [Baruch]; ApcSed 16:7 p. 137, 15; Philo, Rer. Div. Her. 7 al.; Jos., Ant. 11, 90; 101): of Moses (4 Km 18:12; 2 Esdr 19:14; Ps 104:26; Jos., Ant. 5, 39) Rv 15:3. Of recipients of gifts from God’s spirit Ac 2:18 (Jo 3:2). Of Christian prophets Rv 10:7; 11:18 (prophets are also called slaves of God in the OT Jer 25:4; Am 3:7; Da 9:6, 10 Theod.). Of the apostles Ac 4:29; 16:17 (δ. τοῦ θεοῦ τ. ὑψίστου as Da 3:93 Theod.); Tit 1:1; AcPl Ha 6, 35; Christ as master (cp. oriental usage, of a king’s official minister, and the interpretation of δ. in such sense [s. 2bα]) puts his slaves, the apostles, at the disposal of the Corinthians 2 Cor 4:5. Of God-fearing people gener. (Ps 33:23; 68:37 al.) Rv 1:1; Lk 2:29; 1 Pt 2:16; Rv 2:20; 7:3; 19:2, 5; 22:3, 6; 1 Cl 60:2; 2 Cl 20:1; Hv 1, 2, 4; 4, 1, 3; m 3:4 al. The one who is praying refers to himself as your (God’s) slave (cp. Ps 26:9; Ch 6:23; Da 3:33, 44) Lk 2:29; Ac 4:29 (FDölger, ΙΧΘΥΣ I 1910, 195ff).—In the same vein, of one’s relation to Christ δ. Χριστοῦ, self-designation of Paul (on the imagery s. Straub 37; DMartin, Slavery as Salvation: The Metaphor of Slavery in Pauline Christianity ’90) Ro 1:1; Gal 1:10; Phil 1:1; cp. Col 4:12; 2 Ti 2:24; Js 1:1; 2 Pt 1:1; Jd 1; Rv 1:1; 22:3; 1 Cor 7:22; Eph 6:6.—On δοῦλοι and φίλοι of Christ (for this contrast s. Philo, Migr. Abr. 45, Sobr. 55; PKatz, Philo’s Bible ’50, 85ff) J 15:15, s. φίλος 2aα.—Dssm., LO 271ff [LAE 323ff]; GSass, δ. bei Pls: ZNW 40, ’41, 24–32; LReilly, Slaves in Ancient Greece (manumission ins) ’78; COsiek, Slavery in the Second Testament World: BTB 22, ’92, 174–79; JHarril, The Manumission of Slaves in Early Christianity ’95, s. 11–67 on ancient slavery; KBradley, Slavery and Society at Rome ’94; also lit. on χράομαι 1a.—JVogt/HBellen, eds., Bibliographie zur antiken Sklaverei, rev. ed. EHermann/NBrockmeyer ’83 (lists over 5000 books and articles); JCMiller, Slavery and Slaving in World History, A Bibliography 1990–91 ’93 (lit. p. 196–225).—B. 1332. Schmidt, Syn. IV 124–29 s. δεσπότη. New Docs 2, 52–54. DELG. SEG XLII, 1837 (ins reff.). M-M. TW. Spicq. Sv.